Healthy diet plays a key role in maintaining mental health. Numerous studies indicate that eating habits influence brain function, energy levels, mood, and the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment. Unfortunately, people with mental illnesses often struggle to maintain a healthy lifestyle, which may worsen symptoms of depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and other conditions. In this section, we will discuss the most common nutritional mistakes, their impact on mental health, and examples of actions that social workers and specialists can take to support patients.
Ultra-processed food and its impact on mental health
Ultra-processed foods, such as fast food, chips, ready-made meals, and sugary drinks, are high in trans fats, artificial preservatives, and additives, while providing little nutritional value. Patients with mental illnesses often turn to these types of products because they are easy to prepare and available at low cost. Excessive consumption of such food negatively affects mental health because it contributes to:
Increased inflammation – trans fats and artificial food additives can impair brain function and worsen symptoms of depression;
Deficiencies in B vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and magnesium, which may lead to increased irritability and decreased energy;
Gut microbiome disturbances – the gut directly affects mental health, and a diet low in fibre and probiotics can intensify symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Ultra-processed food (UPF) refers to products that undergo intensive industrial processing and contain additives to enhance flavour, texture, and shelf life, such as preservatives, emulsifiers, flavour enhancers, artificial colours, or sweeteners. This category includes sweetened beverages, ready-made meals, highly processed snacks, sweets, and instant food products. These items are typically high in calories, saturated fats, salt, and sugars, while being low in fibre and essential nutrients (Lane et al., 2024).
Research shows that a diet high in ultra-processed food is associated with an increased risk of mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety. A meta-analysis found that higher consumption of ultra-processed food increases the risk of anxiety disorders by 48% and depressive disorders by 22% (Lane et al., 2024). Additionally, consuming ultra-processed products negatively impacts sleep quality, which may further worsen mental well-being.
Scientists conducted a study analysing the diets of over 14,000 individuals in relation to the risk of developing memory problems. Participants were divided into groups based on the amount of ultra-processed food consumed (Bhave et al., 2024).
✔ People who consumed more processed foods had a higher risk of memory and concentration problems. A mere 10% increase in the intake of such products raised the risk of memory disorders by 16%.
✔ Individuals who ate more natural, unprocessed foods (e.g., vegetables, fruits, whole grains) had a lower risk of memory issues (Bhave et al., 2024)
A diet high in UPFs (ultra-processed foods) has been associated with reduced volume in certain brain regions, particularly those involved in emotional regulation and decision-making (e.g., the cingulate cortex and amygdala). This suggests that consuming large amounts of processed foods may affect the structure and function of the brain (Contreras-Rodriguez et al., 2023).
Why can ultra-processed food negatively affect the brain?
Ultra-processed products often contain:
High amounts of sugar and trans fats which can lead to brain inflammation, impairing memory and concentration.
Artificial additives and preservatives some of which may negatively affect the nervous system.
Low levels of essential nutrients lacking the vitamins and minerals necessary for proper brain function.
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Excessive sugar consumption
Patients with mental disorders often turn to sugary drinks, cookies, chocolate, and other sugar-rich products, as these can temporarily improve mood.
Unfortunately, this effect is short-lived, and over time, excessive sugar intake leads to impaired brain function. People with serious mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, are often characterized by high sugar consumption, particularly in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) and tea/coffee with added sugar (Lambert et al., 2024).
Studies have shown that individuals receiving psychiatric care consume up to four times more sugar from beverages than the general population.
This may lead to a deterioration of both physical and mental health.
Key findings (Lambert et al., 2024):
• 66% of patients consumed at least one sweetened beverage or sugar-added tea/coffee per week.
• 56.5% of patients regularly drank sweetened beverages (e.g., cola, energy drinks, sugar-added juices).
• 35.4% of patients consumed coffee or tea with sugar.
• The average daily intake of added sugar was 86.2 g/day, which significantly exceeds recommended guidelines.
Do individuals with mental illnesses consume more sugar-sweetened beverages?
- Low health literacy – People with severe mental disorders are often aware of the risks of smoking and alcohol but have limited knowledge about diet and metabolic health. Research shows that individuals with lower health awareness are more likely to consume sweetened beverages.
- Effect of antipsychotic medications – Some drugs used to treat schizophrenia can increase cravings for sweet foods.
- Temporary mood improvement – Sugar stimulates dopamine production, leading to a brief sense of reward and mood boost. However, this is followed by an energy crash and worsened mood. (Lambert et al., 2024).
- Easy access and low cost – Sugary drinks are inexpensive, widely available, and require no preparation, making them more appealing to individuals with limited income.
Can sugar increase the risk of depression?
Research on the link between sugar consumption and depression has produced mixed results. However, an analysis of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted on 18,439 adults in the United States found that higher sugar intake is associated with an increased risk of depression. Specifically, the study showed:
- Every additional 100 g of sugar per day increased the risk of depression by 28%.
- This association remained significant even after adjusting for factors such as age, gender, income level, health status, and lifestyle (Zhang et al., 2024).
Research suggests that a diet high in sugar may be a risk factor for the occurrence of mental health problems. A systematic review of studies involving 1,212,107 participants from 40 different studies found that high sugar consumption was associated with a 21% increased risk of depression, while its impact on anxiety disorders remains unclear. Sugar may worsen mental health through blood glucose fluctuations, chronic inflammation, disruption of gut microbiota, and effects on neurotransmitters (Xiong et al., 2024).This highlights that social workers can support patients in reducing sugar intake, educate them about its impact on mental health, and encourage a healthier lifestyle. A mindful approach to diet can be an important element in preventing depression and improving the overall well-being of individuals with mental health disorders.
Does sugar affect anxiety disorders?
It should be noted that the overall analysis of scientific research results did not show a significant association between sugar and the risk of anxiety disorders. However, in some subgroups (e.g. studies with a smaller number of participants), a tendency was observed indicating a possible impact of sugar on an increased risk of anxiety. Further research is still needed to clearly determine this relationship (Xiong et al., 2024).
How can a social worker help patients reduce their intake of sugary drinks?
- Simple questions about diet. Since psychiatric patients often have difficulty accurately describing their diet, it is helpful to ask about the consumption of soft drinks and energy drinks, which are easier to remember.
- Example question: „How many sugary drinks do you consume per week?”
- Education about the effects of excessive sugar. It is helpful to explain things simply to patients, e.g. np. „ One can of cola contains about 10 teaspoons of sugar – that’s more than the recommended daily intake”.
- Encouraging alternatives, such as:
- Water with lemon or mint instead of cola;
- Unsweetened fruit tea instead of energy drinks;
- Gradually reducing the amount of sugar in coffee and tea.
- Collaboration with psychologists and addiction specialists – Individuals with a dual diagnosis (mental health disorder + alcohol addiction) require comprehensive support from professionals.
- Helping to plan simple changes. The goal is not to eliminate sugar completely right away – gradually reducing the amount of sugary drinks can bring long-term benefits. For example, you can suggest limiting sugary drinks to twice a week instead of daily.
Cooperation with doctors and dietitians. If a dietitian is not available, sugary drink consumption can be treated as an indicator of dietary risk, which may signal the need for greater intervention (Lambert et al., 2024).
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| Bibliography |
| Zhang, L., Sun, H., Liu, Z., Yang, J., & Liu, Y. (2024). Association between dietary sugar intake and depression in US adults: A cross-sectional study using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2018. BMC Psychiatry, 24(1), 110. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05531-7 Xiong, J., Wang, L., Huang, H., Xiong, S., Zhang, S., Fu, Q., Tang, R., & Zhang, Q. (2024). Association of sugar consumption with risk of depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, 1472612. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1472612 Lambert, T. J., Jay, M., Hennessy, E., Smith, K., & Sureshkumar, P. (2024). Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in people with severe mental illness: A community-based cohort study. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 17, 5887–5899. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S479281 |
Alcohol consumption
People with mental health disorders are more likely to consume alcohol in a risky manner, which can lead to a deterioration in their health and difficulties in daily functioning. Therefore, it is crucial that social workers are aware of this issue and support their clients in finding healthier ways to cope with mental health challenges (Guckel et al., 2022).
Why are people with mental health problems particularly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol–medication interactions?
People with mental health disorders often take psychotropic medications (e.g. antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, antipsychotics) that act on the central nervous system. When combined with alcohol, they can cause serious side effects (Cheng et al., 2018).
Alcohol can affect medications in two ways:
- altering drug metabolism – It can weaken or enhance the effects of medications, leading to unpredictable outcomes;
- enhancing the effects of medications on the nervous system – This can cause increased drowsiness, dizziness, impaired concentration and coordination, and may even lead to loss of consciousness (Cheng et al., 2018).
What are the consequences of combining alcohol with psychotropic medications?
- worsening of mental health symptoms – Alcohol can intensify depression, anxiety, and may even trigger psychotic episodes.
- unpredictable side effects – These may include excessive drowsiness, breathing difficulties, heart rhythm disturbances, and in extreme cases – coma or death.
- risk of hospitalisation – Individuals who combine alcohol with medications are more likely to be hospitalised due to worsening illness or health complications.
reduced treatment effectiveness – Chronic alcohol use can impair the way medications work or cause them to be eliminated from the body more quickly (Cheng et al., 2018).
Are clients/patients aware of the risks?
Studies show that the majority of patients (75%) received information from a doctor or pharmacist about the interactions between alcohol and psychotropic medications (Cheng et al., 2018). However:
- only half of the patients follow the recommendations to avoid alcohol;
- nearly 1 in 4 people (23%) have experienced serious side effects after consuming alcohol while taking medication;
- patients most often consider doctors the best source of information on interactions, but they do not always follow their advice.
Why do people with mental health problems turn to alcohol?
Research confirms that individuals suffering from common mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, or phobias are twice as likely to struggle with alcohol misuse compared to those without such conditions. This indicates a strong link between mental health issues and risky alcohol consumption (Puddephatt et al., 2022). People with mental health disorders often use alcohol as a way to cope with emotional difficulties. This may stem from several factors:
- desire to relieve stress and anxiety – Alcohol has a temporary relaxing effect, which may provide relief for individuals dealing with depression, anxiety, or other mental health challenges.
- attempt to improve mood – Those with depression or other conditions may use alcohol to feel better. While alcohol may offer short-term mood enhancement, it ultimately worsens the situation in the long run.
- avoiding symptoms of illness – Some individuals drink to dull symptoms such as agitation, anxiety, or intrusive thoughts. For example, those with social anxiety may drink before social events to feel more at ease, while those with depression may use alcohol as a “remedy” for their mood.
- environmental influences – Lack of social support, loneliness, or living in stressful conditions can increase the risk of turning to alcohol.
- biological mechanisms – Alcohol affects the same brain areas involved in mood regulation, making people with mental health problems more susceptible to its effects.
- the vicious cycle of addiction – While alcohol may initially bring relief, its misuse leads to worsening mental health, increasing the likelihood of further drinking (Guckel et al., 2022; Puddephatt et al., 2022).
How often do people with mental health problems drink at risky levels?
Studies show that individuals with mental health disorders are more likely to engage in risky drinking compared to those without such conditions. It has been observed that people with depression, anxiety, and phobias are twice as likely to have alcohol use disorder (AUD) than those without mental health issues (Guckel et al., 2022; Puddephatt et al., 2022).
Guckel and colleagues (2022) observed that:
- men and women with mental health disorders are more likely to drink more than the recommended daily limit on a regular basis;
- men with more severe mental health issues are more likely to engage in binge drinking (i.e. consuming more than 4 drinks on a single occasion);
- women with mental health disorders have a higher risk of exceeding alcohol consumption guidelines over the long term (they are more prone to regular excessive drinking).
It is worth noting that the risk of addiction is similar regardless of the type of mental health disorder – individuals with depression and those with anxiety disorders have comparable chances of developing alcohol dependence (Puddephatt et al., 2022).
There is no clear data on the frequency of so-called binge drinking (rapid consumption of large amounts of alcohol) among people with mental health problems, but alcohol misuse is a common issue within this group (Puddephatt et al., 2022).
What does this mean for social work?
- Identifying the problem – Social workers should be aware that individuals with depression, anxiety, and phobias may misuse alcohol as a coping mechanism.
- Education and support – It is important to help clients understand that alcohol is not an effective way to improve well-being and may actually worsen their mental health condition.
- Encouraging alternative coping strategies – Therapy, relaxation techniques, and social support can help clients manage stress and emotions more effectively.
- Collaboration with psychologists and addiction specialists – Individuals with a dual diagnosis (mental health disorder + alcohol addiction) require comprehensive support from professionals.
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Excessive caffeine consumption
Caffeine is a psychoactive substance that has a stimulating effect on the nervous system. It is an ingredient in many popular beverages and medications, including:
- Coffee and tea
- Energy drinks (EDs) – The caffeine content in these drinks can range from 80 mg to 320 mg per serving, and in so-called “energy shots,” even up to 350 mg per serving
- Dietary supplements (e.g. guarana, yerba mate)
- Certain painkillers and migraine medications (Hladun et al., 2021)
How does the caffeine work?
- Brain stimulation – Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors, reducing the feeling of fatigue and improving concentration
- Increased levels of dopamine and noradrenaline – This can enhance mood and have a stimulating effect on the body
- Effects on the heart and blood pressure – It can cause an increased heart rate (tachycardia) and may raise or lower blood pressure
- Diuretic effect – May lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances
- Impact on metabolism – Can cause excessive stomach acid production and increase the risk of digestive problems (Hladun et al., 2021)
Caffeine, especially when consumed in large amounts, can lead to serious health issues, including cardiovascular, neurological, and psychiatric disorders. It is particularly dangerous for individuals with mental health conditions and those taking psychotropic medications. Social workers should educate their clients about safe caffeine consumption and its potential risks, as well as monitor its impact on their health and daily functioning.
Talking about energy drinks – This is especially important for young people, who may be unaware of the high caffeine content in these drinks and their negative health effects (Hladun et al., 2021).
Energy drinks are liquid products containing stimulating ingredients designed to increase energy levels, improve concentration, and enhance physical and mental performance. The primary active ingredient in these drinks is caffeine, but they may also include other stimulants such as taurine, guarana, L-carnitine, and various B vitamins (Costantino et al., 2023).
When large amounts of caffeine are consumed, the body may have difficulty metabolising it properly, leading to accumulation and an increased risk of toxicity. Symptoms of caffeine overdose may include:
- Cardiovascular disturbances – high blood pressure, arrhythmias, coronary artery spasms, and in extreme cases, even heart attacks
- Digestive and renal problems – vomiting, liver damage, kidney failure, and muscle breakdown
- Neurological and psychiatric issues – seizures, cerebral vasoconstriction, intracranial hemorrhages, and psychotic episodes
- Risky behaviours – caffeine’s stimulating effect and reduced self-control may lead to reckless actions, such as speeding while driving, engaging in risky sexual behaviour, or using other psychoactive substances (Hladun et al., 2021)
Average content of caffeine, sugar, and other ingredients in energy drinks (Costantino et al., 2023):
- caffeine – the average caffeine content in an energy drink is 80–160 mg per 500 ml, but some products can contain up to 505 mg of caffeine per can. For comparison, a standard cup of coffee (170 ml) contains between 77 and 150 mg of caffeine;
- guarana – some energy drinks contain caffeine in the form of guarana, which may enhance the stimulating effect;
- sugar – many energy drinks contain high amounts of sugar, often between 50 and 62 grams per 500 ml can. This equals about 12–15 teaspoons of sugar, significantly exceeding the recommended daily intake;
- taurine – an amino acid involved in the functioning of the nervous and cardiovascular systems. Some studies suggest it may have a protective effect on the heart, though its interactions with caffeine are not fully understood;
- guarana – boosts the drink’s stimulating effect;
- L-carnitine – a compound responsible for transporting fatty acids into mitochondria, where they are converted into energy.
Consumption of energy drinks – especially in large quantities – can have serious effects on the brain and nervous system. The main consequences include:
1. Neurotransmission disturbances
- Caffeine acts as an antagonist of adenosine receptors (A1 and A2A) in the brain, leading to increased neuronal stimulation and reduced feelings of fatigue.
- Caffeine also increases levels of dopamine and noradrenaline, which may temporarily improve mood, but over time can contribute to difficulties in emotional regulation.
- This can result in overactivation of the nervous system, manifesting as anxiety, irritability, and sleep disturbances.
2. Increased risk of mental health disorders
- Studies show that individuals who regularly consume large amounts of energy drinks are more likely to experience anxiety disorders, depression, and psychotic episodes.
- People with schizophrenia may experience a worsening of psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions.
- The high caffeine content can trigger manic states, especially in individuals predisposed to bipolar disorder.
3. Impact on memory and cognitive abilities
- Caffeine may temporarily enhance concentration and reaction speed, but excessive consumption can lead to memory impairment and learning difficulties.
- Chronic stimulation of the nervous system may disrupt synaptic plasticity, negatively affecting the brain’s ability to process information and learn effectively.
4. Risk of seizures
- Animal studies have shown that excessive caffeine intake can cause uncontrolled neuronal discharges, leading to seizure activity.
- High doses of caffeine can trigger seizures, even in individuals without a prior history of epilepsy.
5. Increased risk of stroke
- Elevated blood pressure and a tendency toward dehydration further strain the cardiovascular system and the brain, heightening the risk of stroke.
- Consuming large amounts of energy drinks can cause vasoconstriction in cerebral blood vessels, increasing the risk of ischemic stroke.
6. Increased susceptibility to addiction isk of seizures
- Individuals who regularly consume energy drinks may develop a tolerance to caffeine, meaning they need increasingly larger doses to achieve the same stimulating effect.
- This can lead to caffeine dependence, with withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, headaches, and fatigue when intake is reduced or stopped.
- Additionally, for some individuals, energy drinks may act as a gateway to the use of other psychoactive substances, such as alcohol or drugs (Costantino et al., 2023).
Why can caffeine affect the action of antidepressant medications?
Caffeine, due to its effects on the nervous system and the metabolism of medications, can interact with antidepressants, which may alter their effectiveness and cause side effects (Truong et al., 2025).
These interactions may be pharmacokinetic (affecting the rate of drug metabolism) or pharmacodynamic (changing the way drugs work in the body). In some cases, caffeine may enhance or weaken the action of antidepressants, which can have consequences for patients using these medications regularly (Truong et al., 2025).
Source: Costantino i wsp. (2023)
Which antidepressants may interact with caffeine?
- Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs):
- Caffeine can increase the concentration of these medications in the body, leading to stronger effects and a longer duration of action.
- This may raise the risk of side effects such as anxiety, sleep disturbances, and agitation.
- Fluvoxamine in particular significantly slows the metabolism of caffeine, which can lead to its accumulation and symptoms such as insomnia or heart palpitations.
- Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs):
- TCAs may slow down the metabolism of caffeine, leading to prolonged effects in the body.
- However, caffeine does not significantly affect the action of these medications.
- Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs):
- Studies indicate that caffeine does not significantly affect the action of venlafaxine, meaning individuals taking this medication do not need to worry about major interactions.
- Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs):
- When combined with high doses of caffeine, they may lead to hypertension, which is dangerous for patients sensitive to elevated blood pressure.
- Other antidepressants:
- Some of these medications may enhance the effects of caffeine, leading to increased stimulation.
- Vortioxetine, maprotiline, and mirtazapine have not shown significant interactions with caffeine (Truong et al., 2025).
What are the possible consequences of caffeine interactions with antidepressants?
- Increased side effects of medications – such as agitation, anxiety, and sleep disturbances
- Hypertension and heart palpitations, particularly in individuals taking MAO inhibitors
- Reduced treatment effectiveness – if caffeine speeds up drug metabolism or interferes with their action
- Caffeine accumulation in the body – especially in patients taking fluvoxamine or tricyclic antidepressants (Truong et al., 2025)
What does this mean for social work?
- Educating patients about possible interactions – Patients are often unaware that caffeine can affect their treatment. It is worth encouraging them to discuss the impact of caffeine on their medications with their doctor.
- Advising caution in caffeine consumption – People taking antidepressants should monitor their intake of coffee, tea, and energy drinks, especially if they notice negative effects (e.g., anxiety, insomnia).
- Individualized approach to patients – Some individuals may tolerate caffeine well, but for others even small amounts can cause intensified side effects.
- Collaboration with doctors and pharmacists – It is advisable to encourage patients to consult their physician if they have doubts about how caffeine may affect their therapy.
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| Bibliography |
| Truong, J., Abu-Suriya, N., Tory, D., et al. (2025). An exploration of the interplay between caffeine and antidepressants through the lens of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, 50, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13318-024-00928-x Hladun, O., Papaseit, E., Martín, S., Barriocanal, A. M., Poyatos, L., Farré, M., & Pérez-Mañá, C. (2021). Interaction of energy drinks with prescription medication and drugs of abuse. Pharmaceutics, 13(10), 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13101532 Costantino, A., Maiese, A., Lazzari, J., Casula, C., Turillazzi, E., Frati, P., & Fineschi, V. (2023). The dark side of energy drinks: A comprehensive review of their impact on the human body. Nutrients, 15(18), 3922. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15183922 |
Lack of meal structure
Irregular eating habits, such as skipping meals, eating at night, or following a chaotic diet, can lead to unstable energy levels and worsen symptoms of mental health disorders.
A lack of meal regularity – including reduced meal frequency and skipping main meals – can increase the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components. A study conducted on 22,699 Korean adults found that men who ate only two meals a day had a higher risk of metabolic syndrome compared to those who ate three meals a day. Among women who ate two meals a day, skipping breakfast was associated with elevated fasting glucose levels and increased triglycerides, which may raise the risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Conversely, women who skipped dinner had a lower risk of elevated fasting glucose levels. These findings suggest that both the frequency of meals and which meal is skipped can significantly impact metabolic health, and that regular breakfast consumption may play a key role in preventing metabolic syndrome (Park et al., 2023).
Skipping breakfast can have negative effects not only on the body but also on mental health and cognitive performance. Studies show that individuals who regularly skip breakfast have a higher risk of developing ADHD and depression. This may be due to unstable blood glucose levels and disruptions in neurotransmitter function, which influence mood, concentration, and overall well-being (Zhang, Tan & Luo, 2024).
Not eating breakfast can also impair the ability to learn and retain information, making it harder for students to perform well in school. Additionally, people who skip breakfast more often report physical weakness and lack of energy, which can affect their daily functioning and activity levels (Zhang, Tan & Luo, 2024).
Studies involving adolescents have shown that skipping breakfast significantly increases the risk of stress and depressive mood. Furthermore, the more frequently adolescents skipped meals throughout the day, the higher the risk of experiencing stress and depression (Lee, Han & Kim, 2017).
Interestingly, the studies did not find a link between skipping breakfast and Alzheimer’s disease, bipolar disorder, narcolepsy, or insomnia. However, the findings clearly highlight that regular breakfast consumption can support mental health, improved concentration, and stronger immune function. Therefore, it is worth prioritising a morning meal to enhance well-being, learning efficiency, and the ability to manage daily tasks (Zhang, Tan & Luo, 2024).
Observational studies suggest that skipping breakfast and disturbances in the gut microbiome may increase the risk of depression. However, until now, it was unclear whether changes in gut bacteria composition were one of the mechanisms linking these two factors. To investigate this relationship, a genetic analysis was conducted using data from studies involving hundreds of thousands of individuals. The results showed that skipping breakfast was associated with an increased risk of depression, but depression itself did not affect breakfast frequency. Interestingly, the gut microbiome analysis did not provide strong evidence that changes in bacterial composition play a key role in this relationship. The only exception was the Actinobacteria group, where higher levels were associated with a lower risk of depression. This study confirms that skipping breakfast may increase the risk of depression, but the role of the gut microbiome in this process requires further research involving larger populations (Guo et al., 2024).
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| Bibliography |
| Park, H., Shin, D., & Lee, K. W. (2023). Association of main meal frequency and skipping with metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: A cross-sectional study. Nutrition Journal, 22(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-023-00852-x Zhang, Z., Tan, J., & Luo, Q. (2024). Associations between breakfast skipping and outcomes in neuropsychiatric disorders, cognitive performance, and frailty: A Mendelian randomization study. BMC Psychiatry, 24(1), 252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05723-1 Lee, G., Han, K., & Kim, H. (2017). Risk of mental health problems in adolescents skipping meals: The Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010 to 2012. Nursing Outlook, 65(4), 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2017.01.007 Guo, X., Li, W., Hou, C., & Li, R. (2024). Breakfast skipping is linked to a higher risk of major depressive disorder and the role of gut microbes: A Mendelian randomization study. Nutrition Journal, 23(1), 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-024-01038-9 |
