What are emotions?
Emotions are short-term reactions of the body to different situations that help us respond to the world around us. They happen automatically, and we often don’t have full control over them. Emotions can be triggered by external events (e.g. talking to someone, a situation at school) or internal experiences (e.g. memories, thoughts).
Examples of emotions:
The role of emotions in life
- Emotion is a physical reaction that we feel in the body, such as joy, sadness, or fear.
- Thought is an interpretation of a situation, such as “I won’t be able to do this” or “He doesn’t like me.”
Example:
- ️ Thought: “Nobody understands me.”
- ️ Emotion: Sadness, feeling of loneliness.
- ️ Reaction: Loss of appetite or craving something sweet to improve mood.
People often think their thoughts are emotions, for example: “I feel like I can’t handle this.” But this is actually a thought – the emotion might be fear of failure.
INTERACTIVE ACTIVITY 17
Research on the relationship between hunger and mental states has typically been conducted in laboratory settings or among individuals with eating disorders.
Rivaz et al. (2022) conducted an experiment to examine how hunger and eating affect daily emotions in over 700 adults. For one week, participants reported their levels of hunger, food intake, and mood four times a day.
The results showed that hunger could increase feelings of energy and activity, as well as enhance alertness. People who were hungry reported less mental sluggishness. Eating, on the other hand, made people feel more active later in the day.
The study also found that emotions can influence hunger: individuals who felt energetic, lively, or restless tended to experience hunger more quickly. In contrast, those who felt distracted or mentally slowed down experienced reduced hunger.
Interestingly, no relationship was found between hunger and negative emotions such as sadness, anxiety, or anger. This suggests that hunger may have a stronger effect on our energy and activity levels than on negative mood.
4.1. A brief history of the emotional brain – the limbic system theory
Every organism, even a single-celled one, must respond to its environment in order to survive. For example, bacteria move toward nutrients and away from toxins. As evolution progressed, multicellular organisms – especially those with a nervous system – developed more advanced ways of responding to their surroundings.
How did the brain develop?
Vertebrates (animals with a backbone) share a similar general brain structure, which consists of three main parts:
Differences in brain structure across species led to the development of the triune brain theory in the 20th century. This theory proposed that with the emergence of mammals, the forebrain underwent significant expansion. New structures evolved, such as the neocortex, which supports more advanced mental processes – such as learning, planning, and, in humans, language.
Paul MacLean’s limbic system theory
In the mid-20th century, neurobiologist Paul MacLean proposed a theory suggesting that the brain is composed of three evolutionary layers:
1️. Reptilian brain – the oldest part of the brain evolutionarily, responsible for basic functions and instinctive behaviors.
2️. Paleomammalian brain (limbic system) – responsible for emotions.
3️. Neocortex (brain of higher mammals) – enables rational thinking and emotional regulation.
According to MacLean, the limbic system – which includes structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus – helps us feel and remember emotions. He believed that this system played a central role in emotional reactions and linked them to smells and memory. MacLean argued that over the course of evolution, the neocortex gradually began to take more control over emotions, allowing humans to better regulate their feelings and make rational decisions.
Was MacLean’s theory accurate?
Although the limbic system theory became very popular in the 1950s–1970s, later research has shown that it is not entirely accurate. Here are the main reasons why modern scientists have moved away from this model:
Limbic-like structures are not unique to mammals.
MacLean believed the limbic system was unique to mammals, but research has shown that birds and reptiles also have similar structures – for example, equivalents of the hippocampus and amygdala.
The hippocampus is not primarily responsible for emotions.
MacLean considered the hippocampus to be central to emotional processing. However, current research shows that its main role is in memory and spatial navigation. Its influence on emotions is much smaller than previously thought.
The limbic system does not function as a single unified system.
MacLean’s theory proposed that the limbic system is a coherent unit responsible for emotions. In reality, emotions are not controlled by a single brain area, but rather by a network of regions working together – including the neocortex.
The neocortex is involved in both thinking and emotions.
MacLean suggested that the neocortex was mainly responsible for rational thinking, while emotions were controlled by older brain regions. However, current research shows that the neocortex also plays a role in emotional processes – for example, helping to regulate and interpret emotional responses.
How do we understand emotions in the brain today?
Today, scientists no longer try to explain emotions using a single “emotional system,” as proposed by the limbic system theory. Instead, they study specific emotions and their underlying mechanisms in the brain. Each emotion involves different brain structures, and their interactions are much more complex than previously thought.
The limbic system played an important role in the early study of emotions, but it is not solely responsible for their generation. We now know that emotions arise from the cooperation of multiple brain areas, and their regulation is more complex than the original theory assumed.
4.2. Emotional eating vs. physical hunger
How do we understand emotions in the brain today?
We don’t always eat because we are physically hungry. Sometimes, we turn to food for other reasons—such as emotions. Physical hunger is the body’s natural signal that it needs energy, while emotional hunger is driven by our feelings and mood.
The most important differences are presented in the table below.
| Feature | Physical hunger | Emotional hunger |
|---|---|---|
| Develops gradually? | ✅ Yes | ❌ No – appears suddenly |
| Felt as stomach contractions? | ✅ Yes | ❌ No |
| Disappears after a normal meal? | ✅ Yes | ❌ No – you still want to eat |
| Craving specific types of food? | ❌ No – you eat what’s available | ✅ Yes – mainly sweets, fast food |
| Followed by guilt after eating? | ❌ No | ✅ Yes |
| Regulated by the body? | ✅ Yes – controlled by brain and hunger hormones | ❌ No – driven by emotions |
Example:
- If you’re truly hungry, you’ll be able to eat a healthy meal, like a sandwich or a salad.
- If it’s emotional hunger, you crave something specific, like chocolate or chips.
Physical hunger develops gradually, is linked to the body’s actual needs, and goes away after eating a meal.
Emotional hunger appears suddenly, creates cravings for specific foods, and is not related to a physical need.
Theories of emotional eating – how do emotions influence what we eat
Researchers identify three main approaches to explaining why people eat in response to emotions. Each focuses on a different mechanism (Reichenberger et al., 2020):
1️. Perception of bodily signals (interoception)
2️. Cognitive processes
3️. Learning based on past experiences
1. Psychosomatic theory – confusing emotions with hunger
According to this theory, some individuals have difficulty accurately recognizing signals from their body. This means they may confuse emotional states with physical hunger. For example, when they feel stress, sadness, or anxiety, their body reacts with tension, which they interpret as hunger – leading them to eat (Reichenberger et al., 2020).
Example:
Maria is feeling stressed before an exam. Instead of recognizing that she is tense and anxious, she thinks she is hungry and reaches for a chocolate bar. s once used to explain obesity, but today researchers agree that it does not fully account for the phenomenon. However, the topic of body signal awareness still plays an important role in nutrition research.
2. Restraint theory – rigid rules lead to overeating
This theory suggests that people who follow very strict diets are more prone to episodes of emotional eating. When someone forbids themselves from eating certain foods (e.g., “I never eat chocolate”) and then breaks that rule, they may think, “I’ve already failed, so I might as well eat more.” This is known as the “what the heck effect” (Reichenberger et al., 2020).
Example:
Tomek decided to avoid sweets. However, at his friend’s birthday party, he ate a piece of cake. Instead of stopping there, he thought, “Since I’ve already had sweets, I might as well eat the whole pack of cookies.” Emotions can weaken control over such rules, which is why people who follow overly strict diets often struggle to maintain them in the long term.
3. Learning theory – food as a reward for the brain
This theory explains that eating can become a way to improve mood. If someone has learned from past experience that, for example, chocolate makes them feel better, their brain starts to associate negative emotions with eating. As a result, when they feel sad or stressed in the future, they may automatically reach for food – even if they are not physically hungry.
How does it work?
- Every time we eat something tasty, the brain gets the signal: “this feels good!”
- If we eat during a stressful moment, the negative feeling temporarily goes away.
- The brain learns that food helps to “defeat” stress, so the next time a similar situation occurs, it prompts us to grab a snack again (Reichenberger et al., 2020).
Example:
After a difficult day at school, Kasia always eats ice cream. As a result, her brain begins to associate ice cream with feeling better, and the next time she feels sad, she will automatically crave it.
This explains why it is so hard to break the habit of emotional eating – the brain gets used to the reward provided by tasty food.
Is emotional eating related to hormones?
Some theories also point to the role of hormones in emotional eating. Stress causes changes in levels of cortisol, insulin, and glucose, which can influence appetite. Certain nutrients may also affect brain chemicals that improve mood, which helps explain why eating can bring temporary relief (Reichenberger et al., 2020).
Example:
Chocolate contains compounds that increase serotonin levels – the „happiness hormone”. That’s why many people reach for it when they feel sad.
INTERACTIVE ACTIVITY 18
Why do we eat when we’re sad, bored, or stressed?
Emotions influence the way we eat. Food often serves as a coping mechanism for emotions rather than a response to the body’s physiological needs. How do different emotions affect our eating behaviour?
✔️ Sadness – often leads to cravings for sweets and carbohydrate-rich foods, which temporarily improve mood.
✔️ Boredom – commonly triggers „eating to have something to do,” even when the body doesn’t need calories.
✔️ Joy – can lead to eating in social settings and celebrations, which may sometimes result in overeating.
✔️ Anger – may cause impulsive eating, with little control over the amount consumed.
Desmet and Schifferstein (2008) characterized a range of emotions that may be associated with food consumption. The researchers identified a total of 22 emotions, some of which are positive, while others are negative. A detailed description of these food-related emotions is presented in the table below.
Emotions Related to Food Consumption. Source: Desmet & Schifferstein (2008)
| Positive Emotions | Example | Negative Emotions | Example |
| Satisfaction | Feeling full after eating. | Boredom | Related to monotonous diets or eating out of boredom. |
| Pleasure | Usually associated with consuming sweets. | Disappointment | When the taste of food is different from what was expected. |
| Desire | Often related to the appearance or taste of food. | Lack of Satisfaction | Commonly linked to food eaten outside the home (e.g. restaurant) when quality is below expectations. |
| Fun | Often linked to the social aspect of food. | Disgust | May be felt in relation to specific foods or food products (e.g. offal). |
| Admiration | Favorite taste increases frequency of consumption. | Unpleasant Surprise | Often in the context of unexpectedly bad taste or low quality (e.g. spoiled food). |
| Excitement | Typically associated with energizing foods (e.g. apples) or caffeine. | Shame | Related to inappropriate eating behaviour (e.g. eating pasta or lobster incorrectly). |
| Pleasant Surprise | Discovering unexpectedly good taste. | Contempt | Felt toward certain eating habits (e.g. consuming meat or unhealthy food). |
| Relief | Drinking something refreshing when very thirsty (e.g. on a hot day). | Fear | Often linked to new or unusual foods or food safety concerns. |
| Admiration | Admiration for the chef due to the dish’s sensory qualities. | Sadness | Associated with food consumed during sad experiences. |
| Hope | Often associated with sweets or the visual appeal of a dish. | Anger | Felt when food doesn’t turn out as expected despite great effort. |
| Pride | Pride in preparing a dish that was complex or time-consuming. | Jealousy | Envy over others consuming exclusive products (e.g. caviar). |
Why do we eat differently depending on our emotions?
- When we feel sad, we often seek comfort in food – this is why we tend to choose sweets and fast food, which trigger a quick release of dopamine (the “happiness hormone”).
- When we feel joyful, eating becomes part of celebration, often in social settings, which can lead to eating larger portions.
- When we are stressed, the body activates the „fight or flight” response – this may suppress appetite in some people, while in others it increases cravings for unhealthy food.
| References |
| de Rivaz, R., Swendsen, J., Berthoz, S., Husky, M., Merikangas, K., & Marques-Vidal, P. (2022). Associations between hunger and psychological outcomes: A large-scale ecological momentary assessment study. Nutrients, 14(23), 5167. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235167 Reichenberger, J., Schnepper, R., Arend, A. K., & Blechert, J. (2020). Emotional eating in healthy individuals and patients with an eating disorder: Evidence from psychometric, experimental and naturalistic studies. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 79(3), 290–299. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665120007004 Desmet, P., & Schifferstein, H. (2008). Sources of positive and negative emotions in food experience. Appetite, 50(2–3), 290–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.08.003 |
